[人發] play－youkoya

Classical theory of play

http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/css287/287CLSCL.pdf

遊戲之定義發展文獻之探討

http://ir.lib.nhcue.edu.tw/bitstream/392440000Q/3233/1/AR-M350_20100927_112232.pdf

wiki遊戲理論

http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B8%B8%E6%88%8F

PLAY

If play is a child’s language, then toys can be thought of as the words. Through play therapy the child can work through their challenges and issues using the toys that they choose, revealing their inner dialogue. Through play the child is able to test out various situations and behaviors in a supportive environment. Unconditional positive regard and acceptance encourages the child to feel safe enough to be able to explore their inner selves without censorship. In this environment children are able to try out different roles, work through conflicting emotions and thoughts, and try to figure out what the world is like. The child is able to form a relationship with the provider, and through this relationship they are able to develop trust, improved self-esteem, and self efficacy.

The classic study of how play develops in children was carried out by Mildred Parten in the late 1920s at the Institute of Child Development in Minnesota. She closely observed children between the ages of 2 and 5 years and categorised their play into six types.

Parten collected data by systematically sampling the children's behaviour. She observed them for pre-arranged 1 minute periods which were varied systematically (Parten, 1933).

The thing to notice is that the first four categories of play don't involve much interaction with others, while the last two do. While children shift between the types of play, what Parten noticed was that as they grew up, children participated less in the first four types and more in the last two - those which involved greater interaction.

1. Unoccupied play: the child is relatively stationary and appears to be performing random movements with no apparent purpose. A relatively infrequent style of play.

2. Solitary play: the child is are completely engrossed in playing and does not seem to notice other children. Most often seen in children between 2 and 3 years-old.

3. Onlooker play: child takes an interest in other children's play but does not join in. May ask questions or just talk to other children, but the main activity is simply to watch.

4. Parallel play: the child mimics other children's play but doesn't actively engage with them. For example they may use the same toy.

5. Associative play: now more interested in each other than the toys they are using. This is the first category that involves strong social interaction between the children while they play.

6. Cooperative play: some organisation enters children's play, for example the playing has some goal and children often adopt roles and act as a group.

For occupational therapists who work with young children and their families, the topic of play often holds secondary importance in their intervention priorities. The therapist may focus primarily on the atypical physical signs that are present in the child. The therapist uses play, or more precisely toys, as motivators or modalities to encourage the child to move in a certain way or to calm or distract the child to apply a given type of intervention that the child might otherwise resist or protest. E.g. therapist who is interested in facilitating a quadraped position in an infant with hypotonia may reach for the nearest toy to engage the child’s visual attention while facilitating a desire position.

Dimensions of play:

· As an opportunity for the child to grow and develop and to learn about physical, social, and emotional abilities and skills.

· As a mechanism for exploring and defining one’s own motivation and achievement

· Nonserious, pressure-free opportunity to perform for the process or feeling rather than the product

· As an imaginary world for mastery over unmanageable aspects of reality

· To activate an individual’s exploration and sense of wonder

· As a foundation and builder of interpersonal relationships

· As a way of teaming and developing interests, skills in concentration and in problem solving, and judgment

· As an arena for learning about adolescent and adult roles, as well as role behaviors

TAKATA’S Play Epochs:

Takata an occupational therapist first published “The play history” in 1969, further elaborated in 1974, and later in 1984.

In describing each epoch, Takata designed a strategy for looking at elements of play behavior across age spans. Together with consideration of the age-appropriate materials, actions, people, and places for the child, Takata described the emphasis of the epoch.

EPOCH	Emphasis
Sensorimotor ( birth – 2yrs)	Emergence of independent play Exploration of play based on the trial-and-error behavior
Symbolic and simple constructive (2-4 years)	Parallel play Emergence of sharing Simple pretense and simple constructive play
Dramatic and complex constructive and pregame (4-7yrs)	Emergence of cooperative play Purposeful use of materials for construction Dramatization of reality Skills and tool used
Games (7-12yrs)	Complex constructional play Sports and play with rules Completion and cooperation in play
Recreation (12-16yrs)	Team play Special interest and hobby group